Conclusion
The economic burden of HF continues to grow and HF is one of the single most expensive and deadly healthcare problems. Additional clinical and comparative effectiveness research studies are urgently needed, along with development of new and innovative therapies. Significant gaps remain in the evidence base and guidelines for HF, particularly in the care of patients with HFpEF, patients with ADHF and patients with HF, and multiple co-morbidities. Other gaps in evidence that we did not address include the increasing use of ventricular assist devices, novel cardiac biomarkers and advanced cardiac imaging techniques. Along with encouraging novel devices and pharmacological therapies, it remains important to refine the roles of established therapies. When such evidence-based, guideline-directed therapies exist or emerge, every effort should be made to effectively implement these HF therapies to optimise care and outcomes.